Absorbance - Chemistry Glossary Definition

Absorbance is a measure of the quantity of light absorbed by a sample. It is also known as optical density, extinction, or decadic absorbance. The property is measured using spectroscopy, particularly for quantitative analysis. Typical units of absorbance are called absorbance units, which have the abbreviation AU and are dimensionless. Absorbance is calculated based on either the amount of light reflected or scattered by a sample or by the amount transmitted through a sample. If all light passes through a sample, none was absorbed, so the absorbance would be zero and the transmission would be 100%. On the other hand, if no light passes through a sample, the absorbance is infinite and the percent transmission is zero. The Beer-Lambert law is used to calculate absorbance: A ebc Where A is absorbance (no units, A log10  P0  / P)e  is the molar absorptivity with units of L mol-1  cm-1b  is the path length of the sample, usually the length of a cuvette in centimetersc  is the concentration of a solute in solution, expressed in mol/L Sources IUPAC (1997). Compendium of Chemical Terminology, 2nd ed. (the Gold Book).Zitzewitz, Paul W. (1999). Glencoe Physics. New York, N.Y.: Glencoe/McGraw-Hill. p. 395. ISBN 0-02-825473-2.

Types Of Relationships Between Parents And Adolescents

Types of relationships. There are different types of relationships between adults and adolescents and they all have different dynamics. Miller-Day discussed four different types of relationships between parents and adolescents. Although they were discussed as parent-adolescent relationships, these types of relationships can also exist between school counselors and adolescent students. Miller-Day described laissez faire, consensual, pluralistic, and protective relationships. These types of relationships all differ in their combination of conversation orientation and conformity orientation. Laissez faire relationships have low conversation and low conformity, consensual relationships have high conversation and high conformity, pluralistic relationships have high conversation and low conformity, and protective conversations have low conversation and high conformity (2008). Awareness of the different types of relationships is important because it determines how an adolescent receives a m essage from an adult. Conversation orientation refers to the amount of discussion on a subject and the amount of individual input. Conformity orientation refers to the amount of conformity required in a relationship and often results in a â€Å"because I said so† type of attitude. The way a decision is come to the message of an expectation is relayed will affect the feelings that come from it. View of relationship. The way in which adolescents and adults view their relationship with one another hasShow MoreRelatedParental Supervision and Adolescent Drinking Behavior1591 Words   |  7 PagesI. Hypothesis. The purpose of this research is to find out if parental supervision has an influence in adolescents’ drinking behavior. II. Literature Review. Research suggests that parents play an important role in the lives of children. Some of these parents have a negative or positive influence on the lives of the children. Shin, Edwards, Heeren, Amodeo (2009) stated that in the United Stated nearly 3.3 million referrals were made to state and local child protective servicesRead MoreChild Development Theories Within The Field Of Psychology Essay928 Words   |  4 Pageslead to the typical features of individuals. Evidently, parent is one key topic in various child development theories since parents generally provide the whole living environment for children. For example, it is one dominant component of the microsystem in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological approach.Parenting styles are referred as the general traits and characteristics of the strategies that parents used to deal with their children. There are 4 types of parenting styles which were divided by responsivenessRead MoreGeneral Strain Theory And Its Effects On Adol escent Delinquency913 Words   |  4 Pages must be focused on the negative emotions, behavior and actions of the individual, and relationships developed through interaction. A family based program is a program that could be implemented. The idea behind a family oriented program would be designed to address family bond and communication between the parents and children. Studies done in the past support the notion that relationship between the parents and child, as well as the strain experienced, can lead the child to delinquency. A surveyRead MoreThe Association Of Parent Adolescent Relationships And Adolescent Relationship With Their Peers Essay1490 Words   |  6 Pageswas to examine the association of parent-adolescent relationships and the adolescent’s relationship with their peers. Previous research has found that parents do play a crucial role in shaping a child’s social skills and in their relationships with peers but this is prior to adolescence. The literat ure review had found that studies on parental influences through adolescence are not as common and the ones that were available typically only focused on how parents and peers influence social developmentRead MoreAdolescent Runaways Essay919 Words   |  4 Pagesharder than living in a home with an adolescent - and thats being an adolescent. The moodiness, the volatility, the wholesale lack of impulse control, all would be close to clinical conditions if they occurred at another point in life. In adolescence, theyre just part of the behavioral portfolio. In brief, adolense presents a wide array of issues, and these issues help determine who a teenager becomes; the issue of runaway teenagers is no different. Adolescent runaways are a small problem relativeRead MoreLong Term Effects Of Single Parenting Adolescents And Young Adults1431 Words   |  6 PagesLong term effects of single parenting in adolescents and young adults In today’s world, single-parent families become the opposite of the so-called â€Å"nuclear family†, which consists of a mom, a dad, and children. Single-parent households increased in the last 20 years and today, finding a family headed by: mothers, fathers, and grandparents only appears normal. This new pattern creates difficulties on children because single-parents tend to devote more time to work in order to achieve financial stabilityRead MoreAdolescent s Relationship With A Biological And Step Parent1401 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction: When a parent begins a serious relationship after divorce, there is a change in family dynamics which can affect the adolescent in several ways. An adolescent’s emotional well-being is affected due to the sudden change in one’s life. A new relationship can cause conflict in that when both families come together to form one unit, each family is bringing in one’s own set of beliefs and feelings. In order for a family to become one unit, each member of the family must be a cohesive systemRead MoreWhat Is Reciprocal Socialization Means And Give 1-2 Examples That May Demonstrate It1385 Words   |  6 PagesDescribe what reciprocal socialization means and give 1-2 examples that might demonstrate it. Reciprocal socialization is the process by which children and adolescents socialize parents, just as parents socialize them (pg. 260). One example the book given is if the parent is hostile, hostile parenting is associated with negative outcomes for adolescents such as being defiant. I think another example is a client that was mentioned in class she felt as if her existence was the cause of someone’s misery.Read MoreAttachment, Antisocial, And Antisocial Behavior1716 Words   |  7 PagesAttachment and Antisocial Behavior in Adolescents Secure early infant attachments are imperative to a person’s life because it assists in the development of empathy and emotional self-regulation. A healthy development of empathy and emotional self-regulation promotes prosocial behavior. Prosocial behavior is the deliberate action of helping and/or benefiting another person, group, or society in general without any thought of being rewarded. Securing an early infant attachment can develop an automaticRead MoreDating Violence And Its Effects On Society1383 Words   |  6 PagesViolence within a dating relationships has its negative effects on all people regardless of their age, race, or gender. It is safe to say dating violence crosses all racial, economic and social lines. Granting, one generally views it as being extremely detrimental when the violence occurs within an adolescent relationship. This could in part be due to the fact that the perception many people hold is that young people probably should not even be partak ing in â€Å"serious relationships† in the first place.

The Middle East Respiratory Syndrome - 1821 Words

In June 2015, the Republic of South Korea experienced an outbreak of the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) that was rapidly transmitted across the general population. Transmission was most active within medical institutions, specifically the emergency rooms because of their overcrowded conditions. There are several interventions that can reduce the risk for MERS outbreaks in South Korea; however, the government’s lack of response in 2015 led to an epidemic that was larger than necessary. Furthermore, although there is currently no vaccine for the disease, MERS transmission is preventable with proper containment and infection control procedures. For this reason, international health organizations and governments have made efforts in implementing new public health agendas that have shown progress in various aspects, but additional research is still needed for short-term and long-term countermeasures. If the South Korean government can review its response me thods, then South Korea has the potential to prevent rapid transmission in future MERS outbreaks. Introduction The Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) first emerged in 2012 from the Middle Eastern region, particularly the Arabian Peninsula (Banik). The MERS-CoV is a single-stranded RNA virus that, similar to the SARS-CoV and other coronaviruses, is prone to viral mutations that allow for the development of an enhanced human-to-human transmission (Chowell, Banik, Hui). AnimalShow MoreRelatedThe Middle East Respiratory Syndrome1748 Words   |  7 PagesThe Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) is a positive-strand RNA virus belonging to the C lineage of the Betacoronavirus genus. 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Nursing Ethics, Law and Professional Code of Practice

CODE OF ETHICS AND PROFESSIONAL CONDUCT S I N G A P O R E N U R S I N G B O AR D CONTENTS PAGE I II A Preamble Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct Nurses/Midwives and their clients Value Statement 1: Value Statement 2: Value Statement 3: Value Statement 4: Respect clients’ individual values and needs Respect and promote clients’ autonomy Respect clients’ right to confidentiality Respect and preserve clients’ privacy and dignity B Nurses/Midwives and their practice Provide care in a responsible and accountable manner Value Statement 6: Value Statement 7: Value Statement 8: Maintain competency in the care of clients Advocate in the best interest of clients Maintain a high ethical standard in the conduct of research C Nurses/Midwives†¦show more content†¦actively involve their clients in the planning and delivery of care. provide care regardless of clients’ gender, ethnicity, religion, age, health and socio-economic status. Value Statement 2 : Respect and promote clients’ autonomy. Nurses/midwives shall respect the clients’ right for self-determination and provide them with whatever information they require to make informed decisions concerning their own care. 4 Ethical practice points Nurses/midwives shall 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 inform clients about the nursing care options that are available. assist clients in obtaining the necessary information from appropriate sources, when what is required is beyond the nurse/midwife’s scope. respect the informed decision of competent clients to accept or refuse care. obtain consent for nursing interventions where necessary and collaborate with other members of the health care team to obtain consent for medical treatment. 2.5 When clients are incapable of making informed choices, consent should be sought from family members or significant others. provide appropriate care until alternative arrangements are made, if the nurse/midwife is unable to comply with the client’s requests because they run contrary to the law or the nurse’s moral beliefs. Value Statement 3 : Respect clients’ right to confidentiality. Nurses/midwives shall maintain the confidentiality of all informationShow MoreRelatedEthics And Code Of Professional Conduct1598 Words   |  7 Pagessome of the legislations and Tort laws that are directly associated with the nursing profession and also the Nursing and Midwifery Board of Australia’s (NMBA) Code of Ethics and Code of Professional Conduct. Failure to provide care within these parameters could lead to serious consequences for the patient and nurse themselves. Enrolled Nurses must work within certain legal and ethical parameters to ensure appropriate care is provided to patients and also so the nursing profession itself is upheld inRead MoreThe American Nurses Association1130 Words   |  5 Pagesprovide care to many individuals whom have their own unique set of ethics, values, morals, and beliefs by which may be very different from our own. Because of our professional role, we must use lifelong learning as a tool to broaden our views, increase our knowledge, and understand the influences which affect it. To make this possible, we have to continually educate ourselves about the nursing laws, professional standards, and code of ethics all of which we are committed to. American Nurses AssociationRead MoreApplying the D.E.C.I.D.E Model of Decision Making1339 Words   |  6 Pagesfiancà © and also registered nurse (RN) Jane and the Director of Nursing (DON) Ms Day. Specific areas for discussion include the five moral frameworks, autonomy, beneficence, Non – maleficence, justice and veracity in relation with each person involved as supported by Arnold and Boggs (2013) and McPherson (2011). An identification and review of the breached code of ethics and the breached code of conduct in reference with the Nursing, Council, and Federation (2008) will be addressed. Lastly a briefRead MoreCode Of Ethics And National And International Charters1023 Words   |  5 Pages3. Body paragraph – code of ethics and national and international charters. In addition to the analysis for the case study, there are code of the ethics and laws in place that health professionals such as nurses must apply, when considering what should be done for the patient at the end-of-life. According to Kerridge et al., (2013) the law and ethics are different yet interrelated, the law are compulsory regulations that health practitioners must adhere to. The code of ethics in Australia, is aRead MorePolitical Awareness Essay1418 Words   |  6 Pagesand outcomes for all. Nurse leaders must stay informed and become involved as an advocate influencing changes in policy, laws, and/or regulations that govern the health care system they practice in. At times the advocacy requires a nurse leader to become more involved beyond their immediate level of practice and into the world of politics and policy. The health care practice arena is impacted by decisions made by our legislative bodies at the federal and state levels. The changes in health careRead MoreThe Importance Of Acting Ethically When Working As A Nurse1318 Words   |  6 Pagesimportance of acting ethically when working as a nurse. Introduction: Ethics is an essential aspect of health care practice and those working in the nursing profession are often subject to frequent ethical dilemmas. It is essential for all nurses to be aware of the importance of ethics in health care and to practice within the ethico-legal parameters that govern the profession. However, while this is relatively easy in theory, ethics is not a black and white subject and often one’s culture, upbringingRead MoreCode of Ethics for Nurses Essay1605 Words   |  7 Pages Wendell A. Garcia University of Phoenix March 18, 2008 American Nurses Association’s Code of Ethics for Nurses Ethics is an integral part of the foundation of nursing. Nursing has a distinguished history of concern for the welfare of the sick, injured, and vulnerable and for social justice. This concern is embodied in the provision of nursing care to individuals and the community. Nursing encompasses the prevention of illness, the alleviation of suffering, and the protection, promotionRead MoreLegal and Ethical Issues Faced by Nurses792 Words   |  3 PagesPage 1: What primary relationships do you see between legal and ethical issues faced by nurses in their practice? How would you explain these relationships to others? As well as medical caregivers, nurses must confront some of the most serious human dilemmas all individuals muse over, such as death and dying. Nurses often deal with extreme ethical conundrums on a daily basis. These concerns include end-of-life issues, caring for an elderly or disabled relative, the proper way to raise a childRead MoreForensic Nursing Codes Of Ethics1382 Words   |  6 PagesThe profession of nursing has many vast specialties. Although every specialty, including forensic nursing, has its unique population and scope of practice, every field of nursing can and should utilize the Codes of Ethics from the American Nurses Association. The 2015 Code â€Å"addresses individual as well as collective nursing intentions and actions; it requires each nurse to demonstrate ethical competence in professional life† (ANA, 2015, p. 7). This code can be broken down into nine provisions whichRead MoreANA Code of Ethics1214 Words   |  5 PagesANA Code of Ethics Introduction In the field of nursing, the ANA Code of Ethics is designed to provide specific bylaws that will influence the practices of health care professionals inside the industry. However, there are different advocacy campaigns that will have an impact on how it is interpreted and applied. In the case of advocacy for population health, these issues mean that there could be moral dilemmas faced in the process (most notably: lifestyle choices and their impact on the individual)

Responsible for the American Involvement in Vietnam free essay sample

Kennedy was more responsible for American involvement in Vietnam than Johnson. Is this a reasonable view? The debates surrounding responsibility for the Vietnam War are extremely controversial. Intervention can be dated back as far as President Truman in 1950 when he began to provide economic and military aid to the French in order to prevent Communist transpolar. American intervention escalated through the various policies of Truman, Eisenhower, Kennedy and finally to Lyndon Johnson, when Vietnam became an American War.American combat troops did not enter Vietnam until 1964, when the Gulf of Tontine Resolution as passed and rapid military escalation followed. This is why many Historians argue that Johnson was more responsible for American involvement in Vietnam; arguing that Kennedy was opposed from the beginning to the infiltration of American troops. However, the argument arises that Kennedy put Johnson into a position where he had no other choice but to escalate, where withdrawal would have deplorable consequences. John F. Kennedy was a strong believer of Eisenhower Domino Theory. It followed the notion that if Vietnam fell to Communism, the rest of South-East Asia would also succumb and as Eisenhower conveyed- the possible consequences of loss are just incalculable to the free world. 1 Kennedy reiterated this belief incessantly throughout his Presidency to which gives reason to Historians such as Paterson, Clifford and Hogan to believe that Kennedy had the incentive to pursue the war.They argue that because Kennedy perceived Communists as one international conspiracy; implementing the Domino Theory, and so respectively increased the Vietnamese presence. 2 They describe Kennedys Presidential term as pivotal to American involvement. 3 Therefore, Kennedys belief in his ability to conquer Communism (and after witnessing Traumas loss in China) fueled his determination to persist in Vietnam. Lawrence Bassett and Stephen Peel state how Kennedy believed Eisenhower had been too passive with South Vietnam and persevered to shift from the defense to the offense. 4 Bassett and Peel use various examples of Kennedys military escalations to support their idea that Kennedy was determined to stop Vietnam falling to Communism. If we refer to NASA 11 1 we see evidence of Kennedys plans for increases in litany advisers, helicopters and equipment. 6 They continue to argue that Eisenhower policy in Vietnam provided Kennedy with other options than to support the Diem regime;7 further escalating, making him responsible for American involvement in Vietnam.John Newman argues averted that the situation in Vietnam was already unruly prior to his Presidential election, and so cannot be held responsible for American intervention, arguing that he never would have sent troops in-8 However, the fact Kennedy continued to increase the number of advisers in South Vietnam, supply heavy artillery and he aid he provided increased to hundreds of millions of American dollars, proves Kennedy invested a lot in Vietnam.Although his involvement was limited, it still escalat ed throughout his Presidential reign and by his death in 1964, he had committed 16,000 military personnel to Vietnam. 9 With South Vietnam now heavily relying on America, we must ask ourselves how easy it would have been for Johnson to withdraw. Bassett and Peel argue that Kennedys bilateral aid lead to further escalation of the Vietnam War, leading Johnson with no other choice but to introduce American troops. They argue that Kennedy raised the costs of withdrawal for his successor. 10 David Halters agrees, arguing that Kennedy set a precedent for Johnson in Vietnam. 1 1 Bassett and Peel go as far to say that If Kennedy had negotiated a deal on South Vietnam, he might have encouraged dtenet with the Soviet union and hastened a Sino-Vietnamese split. 1 2 However this view is extremely subjective; to pursue this idea would mean overlooking other factors to which drove up the hostility between the United States and the Soviet Union. If we look at Lyndon Johnnys book The VantagePoint, we see his own perception of his position regarding Vietnam. Johnson speaks of having had no option but to intervene, where to withdraw would have permanently damaged the United States reputation globally, along with his. 13 David Levy supports Johnson, arguing that even if Johnson had wanted to withdraw, Kennedy had put him into a position where withdrawal would mean a great loss for the United States. Even if Johnson wished not be encumbered by Vietnam Could the nation, having come this far, simply turn back and leave? 14 The reasonable answer is probably not, but did Johnson deed to deepen American military intervention to the scale that he did, to which Kennedy had tried so hard to avoid, or was this is own prerogative. However, Kennedy refused to create attempts of peace negotiations. Senator Mansfield claims to have told Kennedy the dangers of persevering, where the united States would eventually and inevitably be forced to take a combat role if he persisted. 15 Kennedy refused and by referring to the Washing White Papers of 1961 , we see how the report showed for either a military escalation or American withdrawal. 6 This was Ken needs opportunity to withdraw from Vietnam, yet he chose the middle ground and maintained a limited partnership with the Diem. 17 However, Freddie Legally argues rightly that, there is an important difference be;men a combat commitment and an advisory commitment 18- separating the policies of Kennedy from those Of his successor. Or perhaps, if Kennedy had considered military intervention earlier than when Johnson was forced to make the decision, the Vetting and National Liberation Front could have been suppressed more easily, as by the time Johnson came to power they largely outnumbered the South Vietnamese army.If we accept the arguments of Bassett, peel, and Halters then to say that Kennedy was more responsible for American involvement would be a reasonable view, arguing that Kennedy put the United States into a position where withdrawal was extremely difficult. However, we must consider Illegals point. John Newman agrees, arguing that Johnson is essentially to blam e for Americas involvement in the Vietnam War; arguing that Kennedy would never had sent American troops into Vietnam the way that Johnson did. 9 He states- Kennedy had to disguise a withdrawal; Johnson had to disguise intervention. 20 Newman believes that Kennedy was against intervention from the start, and the conservative backlash21 that he would receive if he withdrew, is what postponed an early withdrawal. He describes Johnnys Vietnam policy as a reversal of Keennesss. If we refer to NASA 263- signed October 1 963, we see evidence for Kennedys plan to withdraw 1000 advisers from Vietnam by the end of the year. 3 We can then contrast this with NASA 273- signed November 1 963, which is the document Johnson signed after Kennedys assassination, escalating the number of troops and deepening American intervention in Vietnam. 4 These Woo documents provide us with potential evidence to argue that Kennedy was not more responsible for American involvement than Johnson, as Kennedy had plans to withdraw, and it was on Johnnys own incentive to deepen American involvement. Although there would have been some loss, Johnson could have easily withdrawn after Kennedys death as opposed to signing NASA 273.Freddie Legally agr ees, arguing that the stakes were high for both Kennedy and Johnson went it came to withdrawal in Vietnam, yet the consequences would not have been as devastating as Johnnys decision to introduce American troops. 5 He argues that Johnson escalated immensely from Kennedy, to the point where the only option left was military intervention. As Legally states, l do think that price has to be compared to the price he could expect to pay if he took what by early 1 965 is the only reasonable alternative, and that is major escalation. 26 Legally argues as far to conclude that had Kennedy lived, he would have taken the necessary steps to withdraw the United States from Vietnam. 27 Legally draws attention to Kennedys military experience, arguing that Kennedy understood the risks of military intervention- and Johnson didnt, thus understanding that the losses of withdrawal were less than that of persistence. 28 Bernard Broodier argues further that Kennedys nature and his sufficient understanding of the military situation in Vietnam would have prevented him expanding Americas commitment in Vietnam in the way his successor Johnson did. 29 Historians such as Newman, Broodier and Legally believe that had Ken nedy survived, he would have withdrawn, and go as far to say that the Vietnam War wouldnt have happened-30 They therefore see the idea of Kennedy being held more responsible for American involvement as unreasonable. The Gulf of Tontine incident is defined by many people as the date the Vietnam War started, as David Levy states, By the Autumn of 1 965, therefore, few could doubt that Vietnam was now an American War, and not an Asian one in which Americans were assisting. 31 Two incidents are said to have occurred, where during the first, Vietnamese torpedo boats attacked the ISIS Maddox,32 to which resulted in a major sea battle. The occurrence of the second incident is hugely speculated, with the United States claiming they had been attacked again, which consequently led to the Tontine Gulf Resolution. This granted Johnson to take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United which lead him to make the decision to introduce American troops in Vietnam.If speculated, we must consider why Johnson would want to pursue this deception in order to Americanism the War. Johnson claimed, We wanted to be absolutely certain that our ships had actually been attacked before we retaliated. 34 However, Senator Fulbright, amongst others, expressed his concern to whether the second incident even happened, arguing that there were other ways than military intervention to dealing with the Gulf of Tontine incident. 5 Fulbright in his book Arrogance of Power resolutely criticisms American intervention arguing that America had a choice between opposition to Communism and support for nationalism. 36 To which Johnson and his advisers chose the former, and as Fulbright expresses, we have allowed our fear of Communism to make us once again the enemy of a nationalist revolution, and in that role we have wrought havoc. 37 Fulbright criticisms Johnnys refusal to consider negotiations, comparing him to a gambler who will always continue to raise the stakes in hope of regaining his losses. 38 Thus arguing that Johnson could eave easily withdrawn, suffering little loss, yet was addicted to the belligerent idea of defeating Communism.Halters takes a different angle to Johnson being the primary cause to American involvement, arguing that his personality and character meant that he would never have withdrawn from Vietnam. He describes Johnson as believing in the omnipotence of American power, the concept of the frontier and using force to make sure you were clearly understood. 39 Broodier agrees, describing Johnson as bellicose. 40 Both Broodier and Halters believe that Johnnys belliger ence and stubbornness were significant reasons to why Johnson refused to pull out of Vietnam, along with his lack of military experiences and ignorance in foreign affairs. Broodier States, Foreign affairs were indeed foreign to him, and so for that matter were military affairs. 41 His hostility towards Communism had inevitably augmented, bringing with it an aggressive passion to defeat the Communist aggressors. However, his resources meant he lacked the ability to do this. Frances Fitzgerald supports further that Kennedy understood and possessed comprehensive military knowledge and so would have been able to seen the catastrophic uniqueness that Johnson didnt. 42 Therefore, Johnson ignorance, belligerence, and determination to surpass Communism, lead American to the Vietnam War, not Kennedy. )Prestidigitation released Why Vietnam? in 1965 to explain to the American nation why intervention in Vietnam was necessary and also featuring a bombardment of propaganda. It talks about Johnson having no other choice but intervention due to North Vietnamese aggression, and Dean Rusk goes on to list several peace negotiations offered by the U. S. Yet declined by the Communist aggressors, which we know to be false.!!!!! If we refer to George shins book The United States in Vietnam, he lists various peace settlements offered to Johnson, to which he blindly refused.He explains how after Unguent Khan came to power, the IN_F called for peace negotiations,43 and how Moscow, Hanoi and Paris requested a reconvened Geneva Conference in 1 964, and Johnson refused again. 44 These are just two examples of the many that Kahn lists. Johnson refused all, arguing that, Naturalization of South Vietnam would only be another name for a Communist Takeover. 45 As Kahn argues, it seems certain that President Johnson had by this time decided in favor of bombing the North and was waiting only for an appropriate pretext before ordering initial raids. 46 This again links in with Fulbrights idea of Johnnys opposition to Communism. In February 1965, Aggression from the North report was released, adding to the list of propaganda materials Johnson released to the public to try and justify his unjustifiable intervention in Vietnam. The report ignores the fact Communist rebellion was coming from the South and the North, claiming it was being attacked by the North and therefore had to retaliate. 7 The deception portrayed in this Video, is reason enough to believe that Johnson was trying to cover up the real reasons he was intervening in the Vietnam War.If Johnson hadnt been so determined to resist small scale American humiliation and withdrawn, the War in Vietnam would never have escalated the way it did. To believe Johnnys self-pitying memoirs in his book The Vantage Point would mean adopting a gullible approach to the argument that Kennedy was more responsible for American involvement in Vietnam. The fact Johnson claims he had no othe r option but to escalate has been proven incorrect by the endless list of peace negotiations offered to him, to which he subsequently refused; seeking instead a War against Communism. His motives for doing this spur another debate, however I believe it to be clear that Johnson had every intention of escalating the War in Vietnam, thus placing the blame of involvement on him. To say Kennedy was more responsible for American involvement is precipitous, however we cannot forget that Kennedy invested a lot into Vietnam through his aid policies, as South Vietnam would have collapsed long before Johnson came to power had they not been able to rely so heavily on he United States. We could easily argue that they were equally to blame, where Kennedy set the precedent and Johnson followed by deepening American intervention further.However I find this a very naive approach, and by looking at the different policies of the two Presidents, think it is clear who is more responsible. Kennedy from the very beginning refused to allow American troops into Vietnam, and rejected many suggestions and policies to do so. Kennedy made plans to withdraw advisers, Johnson used the excuse of the second Tontine gulf incident; which may or may not have happened, to Americanism the Vietnam War. Johnson released various documents and videos portraying himself as a savior to South Vietnam against this barbaric ideology of Communism. We know this to be very different as The Nation Liberation Front in Vietnam Was composed of Communists and Non- Communists whom just wanted the Americans out, and were willing to accept some form of coalition government. Johnson refused to accept this. After President Kennedys assassination, Johnson had the chance to withdraw from Vietnam. He refused to do this. As a result, Johnson allowed millions of Vietnamese to be killed and led thousands of Americans to their death. To say Kennedy was responsible for involvement in the Vietnam War is an unreasonable view.

History of Education in the Uk free essay sample

When the 1870 Elementary Education Act was instated it was the first government legislative act that made elementary education available and, in successive years, compulsory for all children. Elementary education consisted of the three R’s ‘reading, ‘riting and ‘rithmetic’, Biblical knowledge and ‘morality’. (Haralambos 2004). Renowned author HG Wells argued that this was â€Å"an act to educate the lower class for employment on lower class lines. † (Cited in Taylor et al 1997). An evolutionary act, not revolutionary, that made no effort to break down the barriers of class based education as but instead provided appropriate schooling for labour class children whilst providing a much needed ‘babysitting’ service as the Factory Acts prohibited children under 10 from working. The development of Britain’s education system was antiquated and lagging behind rival competitors in industry. Broadly up until World War Two, the three types of schooling; public schools for the upper classes, grammar schools for the middle classes and elementary schools for the working class, remained largely unchanged until World War Two. Haralambos 2004) Towards the end of and especially after World War Two the idea of meritocracy arose and with it the desire to rebuild society on meritocratic foundations, starting with education. Rad Butler (conservative MP and president of the board of education education) piloted the 1944 Education Act, often referred to as the Butler act, through parliament. (Derek Gillard 2011). Stephen Moore (2001) proposes that the 1944 Education Act was a part of a large welfare state provision roll out that was put into effect in successive years in the post war period influenced by the 1942 Beveridge Report. Haralambos (2004) highlights the philosophical and ideological underpinning of the 1944 Act as an idea of educational meritocracy and a realisation that the nation wasn’t making use of the talents of its people. â€Å"The nature of a childs education should be based on his capacity and promise and not by the circumstances of his parent. † (Cited in Derek Gillard 2011). The state reorganised the structure of education into three stages; primary education up until the age of eleven, secondary from the age of eleven to fifteen (from 1973, 16) and further or higher education beyond this new leaving age. Taylor et al 1997). Derek Gillard 2011 states that Cyril Norwood publishing the Norwood Report in 1943 directly shaped the landscape of secondary education. Using the prevailing theories of psychologists and educationalists (namely Cyril Burt) of the 1920’s and 30’s understanding of intelligence that held the, now debunked, view of intelligence as fixed and her editary; there were different ‘types’ of pupils, differing in ‘aptitudes and abilities’ and a child’s ‘type’ of intelligence could be found using intelligence testing. Taylor et al 1997). A national intelligence test was introduced, called the 11 plus, and was used as a selection tool for allocating the right ‘type’ of school for the right ‘type’ of child. This method of selection was seen as a scientific way of making sure that each child was receiving an education based on his or her ability. The test was taken on a single day at the age of eleven and this moulded educational trajectory of that child. A tripartite secondary education structure was born; three types of school, for three types of children; grammar schools for the bright and academic, secondary technical schools for children with aptitudes in technical subjects and secondary moderns for the less academic and more practical children. (Haralambos 2004). Taylor et al (1997) puts forth that the tripartite system was designed to provide separate yet equal types of schooling that was geared towards a child’s ability and that each type of school should have a parity of esteem. Parity of esteem was an idea and wasn’t mirrored by the reality; 75% of children who failed the 11 plus were disproportionately working class and consigned to substandard secondary moderns and the ‘top’ 20% who passed were disproportionately middle class who had the opportunity to gain a high quality grammar school education. Very few secondary technical schools were ever built due to their expense and only 5% of children attended them. The 11 plus was perceived as a ‘pass or fail’ test, (failure caused low self-esteem for most schools and the children attending them) and not the selection aid for a merit-based flavour of secondary education it was advertised to be. Derek Gillard’s (2011) argument of classism in the classroom is brought to light by the Attlee government increasing the barrier to entry into grammar schools, declining secondary moderns from introducing C. S. E. exams and rejecting numerous proposals from local authorities to introduce comprehensive schooling. The initial notion of ‘equal chance and opportunity’ education was increasingly viewed as more of a bipartite system of selective schooling; reinforcing the social class division within society rather than flying the flag for educational meritocracy. Criticisms that the tripartite system was wasting talent and not providing the education and skills needed for economic growth, combined with a change of government (from Conservative to Labour) in 1965 led to the â€Å"reorganising of secondary education along comprehensive lines† (Haralambos 2004, p132). A comprehensive education system would bring the tripartite system under one roof, merging three schools into one; educating all children of all abilities regardless of class background. Pupils were all given the same opportunities; there was no ‘selection aid’ (11 plus) as each school had a catchment area that would enable children in the area to attend. Derek Gillard (2011) stated that the ideological driver was to promote social cohesion and abolish ‘classism in the classroom. The move to a comprehensive education system facilitated the pressure for primary schools to teach for the 11 plus was removed and they began to experiment with more liberal child centred teaching methods. (Derek Gillard 2011). According to Taylor et al (1997) the 1960’s and 70’s saw a period of regular governmental change; yo-yoing between Conservative and Labour. It would seem that the determining factor in the rate of change from selective to comprehensive education was th e government in power. The abolition of capital punishment in 1965 and decriminalisation of homosexuality 1967 (www. nationalarchives. gov. uk) was demonstrative of Labours strive for social justice and equality. Haralambos (2004) illustrates the labour party’s push for comprehensive education by highlighting that by the time the conservative party returned to power in 1970 a third of all young people in secondary education were attending comprehensives. Edward Heath’s newly elected conservative government wanted to run grammar schools alongside comprehensives effectively undermining to the very idea of a comprehensive education system. The governmental change back to Labour in 1974 saw that figure increase to 80% by the end of term in 1979. Critics of the comprehensive system of education feared that amalgamating three schools into one would hold back pupils of higher ability and dilute the high academic standards of grammar schools. These fears, however, were unfounded as standards were higher in 1983 (with 4% attending grammar schools) than in 1969 (when 21% were attending grammar schools). Taylor et al (1997). Although exam results improved, the hopes of breaking down class barriers didn’t meet expectations as setting and streaming by ability within comprehensives consigned a disproportional amount of working class pupils to lower streams and sets and the majority of middle class pupils to higher streams and sets. Haralambos 2004). The precursor to the 1976 Education Act that stated there was to be no selection process in education was Prime Minister James Callaghan’s Great Debate speech hinting that the purpose of education was for employment, â€Å"I do not join those who paint a lurid picture of educational decline because I do not believe it is generally true†¦ In todays world, higher standards are demanded than were required yesterday and there are simply fewer jobs for those without s kill. Therefore we demand more from our schools than did our grandparents†¦ The goals of our education†¦ are to equip children to the best of their ability for a lively, constructive, place in society, and also to fit them to do a job of work. Not one or the other but both†¦ (James Callaghan, Great Debate speech at Ruskin College, Oxford, October 18th 1976 courtesy of the Guardian). 1979 saw the re-election of a conservative ‘new right’ government that stayed in power for almost twenty years (until 1997). Led by Margaret Thatcher, the conservative party promoted free market values, privatisation and capitalism. The 1970’s was a time of high youth unemployment and schools and there was a backlash against the liberal teaching methods that were producing young people who lacked the skills required by industry. (Taylor et al 1997). The conservatives wanted an education system that would meet the needs of the market whilst raising standards of education; there was concern that the current system was run by liberal ‘loony left’ teachers and there was an overall lack of discipline. Stories like the William Tyndale Scandal highlighted the need for a return to traditional Victorian values whilst promoting competition. (Derek Gillard 2011). After the failed reinstatement of the selection process in schools (1979 Education Act), by underestimating the popularity of comprehensives, Thatcher’s government waged a war of attrition that spanned almost a decade and 10 legislative acts to weaken and undermine the areas of the current education system; the majority labour controlled LEA’s, the teachers and their unions, the curriculum. For example, the 1980 Education Act gave parents to have the ability to choose from schools from outside their catchment area, creating competition between schools and the ‘absolute freedom of choice by application. (Cited in Derek Gillard 2011). Industry and the free market values of capitalism were the major ideological drivers of the time and the result gave birth to New Vocationalism; the belief that education should serve the needs of the market. The government took the sole responsibility for providing training for work away from employers and in 1983 the creation of a nu mber of youth training schemes; vocational, work based courses for school leavers that would enable them to train and achieve qualifications. These youth training schemes (in 1986) graduated to the forming of National Vocational Qualifications (NVQ’s) which were set to solve the problem of the skills shortage in industry. There was a converse argument that a lack of employment was the problem not the lack of skills or training and vocational qualifications could be seen as a way procuring cheap labour. (Haralambos 2004). The 1988 Education Reform Act, sometimes referred to as the Baker act (after Kenneth Baker), was the most important educational act since the 1944 Butler act and marked the end of the post war consensus and the imposition of free market values on education. Grant maintained schools and city technology colleges that were run like businesses and could specialise to further widen parent choice were created; they circumvented LEA control, were funded directly from central government and had limited selection powers at age 11. A National standardised curriculum and system of testing controlled by the government was introduced with key stages were set in place to make sure that certain education objectives and standards were achieved. The 1992 Education Act saw the creation of league tables, the introduction of Ofsted and colleges and sixth forms taken away from LEA control. The results of standardised tests (SAT’s, GCSE’s and A Levels) and Ofsted inspections would have to be published in the league tables to advertise a schools success or lack thereof and in conjunction with Formula Funding (funding per student) would enable well subscribed schools to expand with parental choice further increasing competition and driving up standards. This had an effect on the economy with higher prices (an increase of 20%) for houses in desirable catchment areas. Ball, Bowe and Gewirtz (cited in Haralambos 2002) argue that not all parents were able to take advantage of the free market model of educational choice. Middle class parents (skilled privileged choosers) understood how the system worked in order to best benefit from it. For example, they had the funds to relocate to a desirable catchment or commute to ‘good schools’. The working class (unskilled chooser) had neither the funds not the understanding of the system to truly reap the benefits. When the labour government came back in to power in 1997 there was a perception that education would revert back to a more egalitarian comprehensive system with no selection but the education policy of Labour was seemingly indistinguishable from the previous conservative government with a continuation of parental choice and competition between schools. (Derek Gillard 2011) Ken Browne (2002) sees the comprehensive equality to free market competition values in education as a shift in priorities from child centred to school centred; the ‘image’ of a schools league table results has become more important than the traditional pursuit of equality of educational opportunity. The question was not ‘what you the school do for the student’ but ‘what can the student do for the school’. Weaker students (working class) were more likely to not be entered into exams for fear of the effect on the league tables and strong students (middle class) were not pushed urther if they already filled the stats of the A* to C bracket as this would be a waste of resources. The academy and free school movement is set to completely break education from LEA control. Academies are described as publicly funded independent schools making education in these schools the sole responsibility of the government and sponsors. They have the power to choose their own curriculum as long as it is ‘broad and balanced’. Alongside academies free schools will do much the same but with less funding and will be run by central government and volunteer and charity groups. Not all schools will become academies and free schools but this migration could be the end of ‘big society’ and mean fragmentation of society that is a haunting reflection of bygone era where the tripartite system entrenched social class division. In conclusion we can see a cyclical pattern in the education system starting in the 19th century with social class division and elitism to the continuation this into the 20th masked by the theory of intelligence rather than social class. In the 1960’s and comprehensive, liberal child centred, education was propped up by the notion of education equality. The tipping point can be seen as the 1976 Great Debate speech by James Callaghan where the emphasis was shifted to education serving the needs of industry. In turn this paved the way for Margaret Thatcher to replace the public service model of education with market forces of competition and a ‘back to basics’ model. And more recently we have seen further privatisation with the academy and free school movement forming the circle and ushering an era of Division all over again. Reference list Browne, Ken. (2002) Introduction to sociology for AS level, London, Polity Press. Gillard D. (2011) Education in England: a brief history www. educationengland. org. uk/history Haralambos and Longley. (2004) Sociology in focus for AQA AS level, Ormskirk, Causway Press. Haralambos and Holborn. (2002) Themes and perspectives, London, Colins. Moore, Stephen. (2001) Sociology Alive, Cheltenham, Nelson Thornes LTD. Taylor et al. (1997) Sociology in focus, Ormskirk, Causeway Press.